Desigualdades de género en el consumo de ansiolíticos e hipnosedantes por parte de adolescentes en España: un estudio transversal / Gender inequalities in the consumption of anxiolytics and hypnosedatives by adolescents in Spain: a cross-sectional study

Fundamentos: Existen cada vez mayores indicios del deterioro en la salud mental de la población, especialmente en mujeres y adolescentes. El objetivo del estudio fue analizar las desigualdades de género en el consumo de ansiolíticos e hipnosedantes (AHS) por parte de adolescentes en España en 2021, además de su tendencia temporal, aplicando un análisis interseccional. Métodos: Se realizó un estudio transversal de tendencia temporal partiendo de la encuesta de ámbito estatal ESTUDES (n=22.321), con una muestra de estudiantes de catorce a dieciocho años. Se calcularon prevalencias, razones de prevalencia (RP) y términos de interacción del consumo alguna vez en la vida y en el último año, a partir de modelos de Poisson de varianza robusta (según sexo, edad, lugar de origen y nivel educativo de los progenitores). Asimismo, se realizó un análisis temporal del consumo (2010-2021). Resultados: Las chicas presentaron mayores consumos en todas las categorías de las variables estudiadas, junto con una mayor probabilidad de uso (RP vital=1,56 [1,47-1,64] y RP anual=1,81 [1,69-1,94]). El consumo aumentó con la edad, de manera más pronunciada en los chicos (dieciocho años: RP vital=1,93 [1,62-2,28]). No existieron diferencias estadísticamente significativas según el lugar de origen. El descenso del nivel educativo de los progenitores aumentó significativamente el consumo en las hijas, con mayor impacto de los estudios maternos. La tendencia de consumo fue creciente, siendo superior en chicas durante toda la serie. Conclusiones: El género o el nivel educativo de los progenitores determina de manera desigual el consumo de AHS entre los/las adolescentes en España. Es necesario ahondar en los determinantes sociales de la salud, dando lugar a intervenciones más efectivas en salud pública.(AU)

Background: There is increasing evidence of deterioration in the mental health of the population, especially among women and adolescents. We aimed to analyze gender inequalities in the consumption of anxiolytics and hypnosedatives (AHS) among adolescents in Spain in 2021 and its time trend, from an intersectional approach. Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional study of time trends based on the ESTUDES national survey (n=22,321), comprising students between the ages of fourteen and eighteen. We calculated prevalences, prevalence ratios (PR) and interaction terms for consumption (both ever and in the last year), based on robust variance Poisson models, by sex, age, place of origin and parents’ educational level. We also examine trends in consumption between 2010 and 2021. Results: Female students showed higher consumption in all categories of the studied variables, together with a higher probability of use (PRvital=1.56 [1.47-1.64] and PRannual=1.81 [1.69-1.94]). Likewise, consumption increased with age, more pronounced in the case of male students (18 years old: PRvital=1,93 1,62-2,28]). Place of origin showed no statistically significant differences in AHS consumption. Lower educational level of parents predicted higher consumption among daughters, with mothers´ educational level showing a stronger association. Consumption increased over the 11-year period, and was consistently higher among women. Conclusions: We observe inequalities by gender and parents’ educational level in AHS use among adolescents in Spain. It iscritical to apply the model of the social determinants of health, which will lead to effective interventions in public health.(AU)

Cuidados paliativos y desigualdades sociales en cáncer. Una revisión narrativa de la literatura / Palliative care and social inequalities in cancer. A narrative literature review

Objetivos: a) Hacer una propuesta de agrupación y clasificación de los diversos abordajes que se recogen en la literatura para analizar el acceso y la utilización de los cuidados paliativos en pacientes con diagnóstico de cáncer avanzado, y b) revisar las desigualdades sociales que se han abordado en la literatura con relación a los cuidados paliativos en estos pacientes. Métodos: Revisión narrativa utilizando las bases de datos Embase, CINAHL y PubMed hasta noviembre de 2022. Resultados: Se realizó cribado por título y abstract de los 2666 estudios recuperados y lectura completa de los artículos incluidos para la extracción de datos. Se detectaron 5 temas principales de los diferentes abordajes en relación con el acceso y uso de los cuidados paliativos: a) control de síntomas, b) adecuación y calidad de los cuidados, c) atención paliativa oportuna, d) planificación de los cuidados y e) lugar de fallecimiento. Las personas mayores, hombres, pertenecientes a minorías étnicas, de bajo nivel socioeconómico y residentes en áreas rurales tienen menos posibilidades de acceder a los cuidados paliativos para aliviar el dolor y el sufrimiento producidos durante la enfermedad oncológica y al final de la vida. Conclusiones: Los cuidados paliativos se consideran un componente esencial para poder proporcionar una atención integral durante el continuo de la enfermedad oncológica. Sin embargo, a pesar de existir evidencia científica que recomienda la aplicación de los cuidados paliativos desde el diagnóstico de la enfermedad, edad, sexo, etnia/raza, nivel socioeconómico y residencia crean inequidad en el acceso y la utilización de los cuidados paliativos en pacientes con cáncer avanzado, produciendo grupos de mayor vulnerabilidad estructural. (AU)

Objectives: To conduct a broad literature review in order to: a) propose a grouping and a classification of the different approaches described in the literature to analyse the access and use of palliative care in advanced cancer patients, and b) review the social inequalities examined in the literature in relation to the access to and use of palliative care in advanced cancer patients. Methods: A narrative review using the Embase, CINAHL, and PubMed databases until November 2022. Results: A total of 2,666 articles were retrieved and screened by title and abstract, with included studies read in full for data extraction. Five main themes of the different approaches were identified in relation to access to and use of palliative care: a) symptom management, b) adequacy and quality of care, c) appropriate palliative care, d) advance care planning, and e) place of death. Older people, men, from a minority ethnic group, of low socioeconomic status, and residing in rural areas are less likely to have access to palliative care to relieve the pain and suffering produced by cancer disease and at the end of life. Conclusions: Palliative care is considered an essential component of comprehensive care all along the cancer disease continuum. However, despite the existence of scientific evidence to recommend the integration of palliative care from diagnosis, age, sex, ethnicity, socioeconomic level and residence create inequity in the access to and use of palliative care in patients with advanced cancer, producing groups of greater structural vulnerability. (AU)

Trends and determinants of social inequities in cardiovascular risk factors in Spain: a mixed-methods study.

This sequential mixed-methods study aims to: 1) assess spatial and temporal trends in cardiovascular risk factors by socioeconomic position from 2001 to 2020 in Spain; 2) explore public health professionals' perspectives regarding interventions that might have impacted these inequities; and 3) analyze determinants on social inequities in cardiovascular risk factors. First, we will measure the change in absolute and relative social inequities in eight cardiovascular risk factors through time trend analysis using repeated cross-sectional data from both National and European Health Surveys for Spain from 2001 to 2020. Second, we will interview key informants -both at the regional and national level-, to contextualize data obtained in phase 1 and capture the content and variation of policies across regions. Third, we will use econometric methods to analyze how these identified interventions have impacted these social inequities within and across regions.

Trends and determinants of social inequities in cardiovascular risk factors in Spain: a mixed-methods study / Tendencias y determinantes de las inequidades sociales en el riesgo cardiovascular en España: estudio de métodos mixtos

This sequential mixed-methods study aims to: 1) assess spatial and temporal trends in cardiovascular risk factors by socioeconomic position from 2001 to 2020 in Spain; 2) explore public health professionals’ perspectives regarding interventions that might have impacted these inequities; and 3) analyze determinants on social inequities in cardiovascular risk factors. First, we will measure the change in absolute and relative social inequities in eight cardiovascular risk factors through time trend analysis using repeated cross-sectional data from both National and European Health Surveys for Spain from 2001 to 2020. Second, we will interview key informants —both at the regional and national level—, to contextualize data obtained in phase 1 and capture the content and variation of policies across regions. Third, we will use econometric methods to analyze how these identified interventions have impacted these social inequities within and across regions. (AU)

Este estudio tiene por objetivos: 1) evaluar las tendencias espacio-temporales de los factores de riesgo cardiovascular en España, por posición socioeconómica, entre 2001 y 2020; 2) explorar las perspectivas de profesionales salubristas con respecto a las intervenciones que pueden influir en estas inequidades; 3) analizar los determinantes de las inequidades sociales en los factores de riesgo cardiovascular. Primero se medirá el cambio en las desigualdades, en términos absolutos y relativos, según ocho factores de riesgo mediante un análisis de tendencias temporales y datos de las encuestas nacionales y europeas de salud para España entre 2001 y 2020. Después se entrevistará a informantes clave, en los ámbitos de comunidad autónoma y nacional, para contextualizar los datos obtenidos en la primera fase y explorar la variabilidad entre comunidades autónomas. Por último, se analizará mediante métodos econométricos cómo influyen dichas intervenciones en las desigualdades sociales entre comunidades autónomas. (AU)

COVID-19 en Costa Rica: análisis longitudinal de las tasas de contagio y de fallecimiento desde el enfoque de la desigualdad social

Introducción: este artículo aborda la relación entre las tasas brutas de contagio y las tasas netas de fallecimiento por la COVID-19 -variables de estudio-, con indicadores socioeconómicos y de la salud -variables de contraste- en cuatro momentos de observación durante el primer año de la sindemia en Costa Rica. Los objetivos del trabajo fueron a) identificar los momentos de observación a partir de la cantidad de casos acumulados por semana epidemiológica; b) establecer la correlación estadística entre las tasas brutas de contagio y las variables de contraste; c) establecer la correlación estadística entre las tasas netas de fallecimientos y las variables de contraste; d) describir el desarrollo de las tasas de contagio y fallecimiento a nivel cantonal; e) caracterizar socioeconómicamente los cantones con valores muy altos en dichas tasas. Metodología: se desarrolló un estudio con enfoque cuantitativo mediante el método estadístico y la aplicación de pruebas de hipótesis de tipo bivariado, a saber, correlaciones Pearson y Spearman. Resultados: los principales resultados indicaron que el contagio está estrechamente vinculado, mayoritariamente, con factores socioeconómicos -densidad poblacional, índice de desarrollo social (IDS), índice de desarrollo humano (IDH) y tasas de delito contra el patrimonio-, mientras que los fallecimientos se asocian a factores biológicos como las tasas de enfermedades -hipertensión y respiratorias- Conclusiones: se demuestra la relación existente entre la enfermedad y las desigualdades sociales, es decir, cómo estas últimas se reproducen en el campo de la salud.

Introduction: This article addresses the relationship between the gross rates of transmission and the net death rates from COVID-19 -study variables-, with socioeconomic and health indicators -contrast variables- at four moments of observation during the first year of the syndemic in Costa Rica. The objectives of the research work are: a) identify the moments of observation based on the number of accumulated cases per epidemiological week; b) establish the statistical correlation between the crude rates of transmission and the contrast variables; c) establish the statistical correlation between the net death rates and the contrast variables; d) describe the development of transmission and death rates at the cantonal level, and e) socioeconomically characterize the cantons with very high values in those rates. Methods: A study with a quantitative approach is developed through the statistical method and the application of hypothesis tests at a bivariate level, namely, Pearson and Spearman correlations. Results: The main results indicate that transmission is closely related, mostly, to socioeconomic factors -population density; Social Development Index (IDS); Human Development Index (HDI) and crime rates against property-, while deaths they are related to biological factors such as the rates of diseases -hypertension and respiratory-. Conclusion: The study demonstrates the relationship between disease and social inequalities, that is, how social inequality is reproduced in the field of health.

Desigualdad de género y medicalización de la salud mental: factores socioculturales determinantes desde el análisis de percepciones expertas / Gender inequality and mental health medicalization: Sociocultural determining factors from the analysis of expert perceptions Departamento de Sociología y Trabajo Social

Objetivo: Identificar las raíces socioculturales que explican la mayor frecuencia de diagnósticos de depresión y/o ansiedad y de prescripción de psicofármacos en las mujeres, con el fin de proponer un marco explicativo preliminar para la investigación de las desigualdades de género en la salud mental y su medicalización. Diseño: Estudio cualitativo con un diseño descriptivo-interpretativo, a través de entrevistas en profundidad realizadas en enero y febrero de 2021. Emplazamiento Las entrevistas se realizaron en diversas ciudades del País Vasco, Barcelona y Madrid. Participantes y/o contexto: Se incluyeron 12 personas expertas en género y salud mental del ámbito clínico (Atención Primaria y Salud Mental), académico y asociativo. Método: Muestreo intencional, siguiendo la técnica de bola de nieve, hasta cubrir la diversidad de perfiles previamente identificados y la saturación del discurso. Se realizó un análisis de contenido temático partiendo de una perspectiva epistemológica crítica-realista. Resultados: Los factores principales identificados que pueden explicar las desigualdades de género en los diagnósticos de depresión o ansiedad y de prescripción de psicofármacos fueron 1) La subordinación material y simbólica de las mujeres, 2) el papel de las ciencias «psi» en la patologización de lo femenino, 3) los sesgos epistemológicos y androcéntricos de la biomedicina, y 4) la agencia activa de las mujeres en los procesos de medicalización. Conclusiones: La reducción de las desigualdades de género en los diagnósticos y la prescripción de psicofármacos requerirá de la intervención conjunta en los planos clínico, comunitario y estructural que, desde una perspectiva feminista, logren revertir la posición de vulnerabilidad socioeconómica, simbólica y epistémica de las mujeres.(AU)

To identify the sociocultural roots that explain the higher frequency of diagnoses of depression and/or anxiety and the prescription of psychotropic drugs in women, in order to propose a preliminary explanatory framework for the investigation of gender inequalities in mental health and its medicalization. Qualitative study with a descriptive–interpretive design, through in-depth interviews conducted in January and February 2021. Interviews were held in various cities of the Basque Country, Barcelona and Madrid. 12 experts in gender and mental health from the clinical (Primary Care and Mental Health), academic and associative fields. Intentional sampling, following the snowball technique, until covering the diversity of previously identified profiles and the saturation of the discourse. An analysis of thematic content was carried out starting from a critical-realistic epistemological perspective. The main dimensions to explain gender inequalities in diagnoses of depression or anxiety and prescription of psychoactive drugs were: 1) the material and symbolic subordination of women, 2) the role of «psi» sciences in the pathologization of the feminine identity, 3) the epistemological and androcentric biases of biomedicine, and 4) the active agency of women in medicalization processes. The reduction of gender inequalities in the diagnoses and prescription of psychotropic drugs will require joint intervention at the clinical, community and structural levels that, from a feminist perspective, manage to reverse the socioeconomic, symbolic and epistemic vulnerability of women.(AU)

[Gender inequality and mental health medicalization: Sociocultural determining factors from the analysis of expert perceptions]. / Desigualdad de género y medicalización de la salud mental: factores socioculturales determinantes desde el análisis de percepciones expertas.

To identify the sociocultural roots that explain the higher frequency of diagnoses of depression and/or anxiety and the prescription of psychotropic drugs in women, in order to propose a preliminary explanatory framework for the investigation of gender inequalities in mental health and its medicalization. Qualitative study with a descriptive-interpretive design, through in-depth interviews conducted in January and February 2021. Interviews were held in various cities of the Basque Country, Barcelona and Madrid. 12 experts in gender and mental health from the clinical (Primary Care and Mental Health), academic and associative fields. Intentional sampling, following the snowball technique, until covering the diversity of previously identified profiles and the saturation of the discourse. An analysis of thematic content was carried out starting from a critical-realistic epistemological perspective. The main dimensions to explain gender inequalities in diagnoses of depression or anxiety and prescription of psychoactive drugs were: 1) the material and symbolic subordination of women, 2) the role of «psi¼ sciences in the pathologization of the feminine identity, 3) the epistemological and androcentric biases of biomedicine, and 4) the active agency of women in medicalization processes. The reduction of gender inequalities in the diagnoses and prescription of psychotropic drugs will require joint intervention at the clinical, community and structural levels that, from a feminist perspective, manage to reverse the socioeconomic, symbolic and epistemic vulnerability of women.

Fatores demográficos e socioambientais associados à insegurança alimentar domiciliar nos diferentes territórios da cidade de Salvador, Bahia, Brasil / Demographic and socio-environmental factors associated with household food insecurity in different territories of the city of Salvador, Bahia State, Brazil / Factores demográficos y socioambientales asociados a la inseguridad alimentaria domiciliar en los diferentes territorios de la ciudad de Salvador, Bahía, Brasil

O objetivo deste estudo foi apresentar a prevalência da insegurança alimentar domiciliar em diferentes territórios da cidade de Salvador, Bahia, Brasil, e analisar fatores demográficos e socioambientais a ela associados. Os dados utilizados são de uma pesquisa maior denominada Qualidade do Ambiente Urbano de Salvador - QUALISalvador, realizada entre 2018 e 2020 em Salvador. A insegurança alimentar foi avaliada por meio da Escala Brasileira de Insegurança Alimentar. Foram analisados 15.171 domicílios. Modelos de regressão logística multinominal foram utilizados para analisar a associação de variáveis demográficas e socioambientais com insegurança alimentar leve (IAL) e moderada ou grave (IAMG), para Salvador e macrozonas. Salvador apresentou 40,96% de insegurança alimentar. Nas macrozonas, as prevalências se diferenciaram: Orla Atlântica (25,8%), Área Urbana Consolidada (33%), Subúrbio (45,7%) e Miolo (47,9%). Todos os fatores analisados apresentaram associação com IAL e/ou IAMG no modelo para Salvador, entre eles estão o responsável pelo domicílio ter escolaridade ≤ 4 anos (IAL: OR = 2,00; IC95%: 1.61-2,47/IAMG: OR = 4,94; IC95%: 3,83-6,35), renda familiar per capita de até 1/2 salário mínimo (IAL: OR = 2,62; IC95%: 2,37-2,93/IAMG: OR = 4,03; IC95%: 3,53-4,60), percepção sobre a qualidade do ambiente urbano como ruim (IAL: OR = 1,57; IC95%: 1,36-1,81/IAMG: OR = 2,03; IC95%: 1,73-2,38), com maior prevalência de insegurança alimentar em cenários de pior situação sociodemográfica. Na macrozona Miolo todos os fatores também se mantiveram associados à insegurança alimentar. Assim, os fatores de vulnerabilidade social estão associados à insegurança alimentar na capital e macrozonas, mas apresentam-se de formas especificas segundo características de cada território.

This study aimed to present the prevalence of household food insecurity in different territories of the city of Salvador, Bahia State, Brazil, and to analyze demographic and socio-environmental factors associated with it. The data used are from a larger survey named Quality of the Urban Environment of Salvador - QUALISalvador, carried out from 2018 to 2020 in in the city. Food insecurity was assessed using the Brazilian Food Insecurity Scale. A total of 15,171 households were analyzed. Multinomial logistic regression models were used to analyze the association of demographic and socio-environmental variables with mild food insecurity (MFI) and moderate or severe food insecurity (MSFI) for Salvador and by macrozones. Salvador presented 40.96% of food insecurity. In the macrozones, the prevalence differed: Atlantic Coast (25.8%), Consolidated Urban Area (33%), Suburb (45.7%), and Core (47.9%). All factors analyzed were associated with MFI and/or MSFI in the model for Salvador, namely: household head having schooling ≤ 4 years (MFI: OR = 2.00; 95%CI: 1.61-2.47/MSFI: OR = 4.94; 95%CI: 3.83-6.35), having per capita family income of up to 1/2 minimum wage (MFI: OR = 2.62; 95%CI: 2.37-2.93/MSFI: OR = 4.03; 95%CI: 3.53-4.60), perception of the quality of the urban environment as poor (MFI: OR = 1.57; 95%CI: 1.36-1.81/MSFI: OR = 2.03; 95%CI: 1.73-2.38), with a higher prevalence of food insecurity in scenarios of worse sociodemographic situation. In the Core Macrozone, all factors were also associated with food insecurity. Thus, the factors of social vulnerability are associated with food insecurity in the capital and macrozones, but they are presented in a specific way according to the characteristics of each territory.

El objetivo de este estudio fue estimar la prevalencia de la inseguridad alimentaria familiar en diferentes territorios de la ciudad de Salvador (Bahía, Brasil) y analizar sus factores demográficos y socioambientales asociados. Los datos provienen de la encuesta Calidad del Ambiente Urbano de Salvador - QUALISalvador, realizada entre 2018 y 2020 en Salvador. La inseguridad alimentaria se evaluó mediante la Escala Brasileña de Inseguridad Alimentaria. Se analizaron 15.171 domicilios. Se utilizaron los modelos de regresión logística multinomial para analizar la asociación de variables demográficas y socioambientales con la inseguridad alimentaria leve (IAL) y moderada o severa (IAMG) para Salvador, por macrozonas. Salvador presentó el 40,96% de inseguridad alimentaria. En las macrozonas, las prevalencias fueron diferentes: Orla Atlântica (25,8%), Área Urbana Consolidada (33%), Subúrbio (45,7%) y Miolo (47,9%). Todos los factores analizados se asociaron con IAL e/o IAMG en el modelo para Salvador, entre ellos destacan el responsable del hogar con nivel de estudios ≤ 4 años (IAL: OR = 2,00; IC95%: 1,61-2,47/IAMG: OR = 4,94; IC95%: 3,83-6,35), con renta familiar per cápita de hasta 1/2 salario mínimo (IAL: OR = 2,62; IC95%: 2,37-2,93/IAMG: OR = 4,03; IC95%: 3,53-4,60), percepción de mala calidad del medio urbano (IAL: OR = 1,57; IC95%: 1,36-1,81/IAMG: OR = 2,03; IC95%: 1,73-2,38) y mayor prevalencia de inseguridad alimentaria en escenarios con peor situación sociodemográfica. En la macrozona Miolo, todos los factores también estuvieron asociados con la inseguridad alimentaria. Por tanto, los factores de vulnerabilidad social se asocian a la inseguridad alimentaria en la capital y en las macrozonas, pero son específicos según las características de cada territorio.

Social inequalities in the incidence, mortality, and survival of neoplasms in women from a municipality in Southeastern Brazil / Desigualdades sociais na incidência, mortalidade e sobrevida de câncer em mulheres em um município do Sudeste do Brasil / Inequidades sociales en la incidencia, mortalidad, y supervivencia relacionada con neoplasmas en mujeres de una municipalidad en el sudeste de Brasil

This study aims to analyze inequalities in the incidence, mortality, and survival of the main types of cancer in women according to the Social Vulnerability Index (SVI). The study was conducted in Campinas, São Paulo State, Brazil, from 2010 to 2014, and used data from the Population-based Cancer Registry and the Mortality Information System. Incidence and mortality rates standardized by age and 5-year survival estimates were calculated according to the social vulnerability strata (SVS), based on the São Paulo Social Vulnerability Index. Three SVS were delimited, with SVS1 being the lowest level of vulnerability and SVS3 being the highest. Rate ratios and the concentration index were calculated. The significance level was 5%. Women in SVS1 had a higher risk of breast cancer (0.46; 95%CI: 0.41; 0.51), colorectal cancer (0.56; 95%CI: 0.47; 0.68), and thyroid cancer (0.32; 95%CI: 0.26; 0.40), whereas women from SVS3 had a higher risk of cervical cancer (2.32; 95%CI: 1.63; 3.29). Women from SVS1 had higher mortality rates for breast (0.69; 95%CI: 0.53; 0.88) and colorectal cancer (0.69; 95%CI: 0.59; 0.80) and women from SVS3 had higher rates for cervical (2.35; 95%CI: 1.57; 3.52) and stomach cancer (1.43; 95%CI: 1.06; 1.91). Women of highest social vulnerability had lower survival rates for all types of cancer. The observed inequalities differed according to the location of the cancer and the analyzed indicator. Inequalities between incidence, mortality, and survival tend to revert and the latter is always unfavorable to the segment of highest vulnerability, indicating the existence of inequality in access to early diagnosis and timely treatment.

O estudo teve como objetivo analisar desigualdades na incidência, mortalidade e sobrevida de câncer em mulheres de acordo com o Índice de Vulnerabilidade Social (IVS). O estudo foi realizado em Campinas, Estado de São Paulo, Brasil, no período de 2010 a 2014 e usou dados do Registro de Câncer de Base Populacional (RCBP) e do Sistema de Informação de Mortalidade (SIM). Foram calculadas as taxas de incidência e mortalidade padronizadas por idade e estimativas de sobrevida em cinco anos de acordo com estratos de vulnerabilidade social. Foram demarcados três estratos com base no IVS de São Paulo, onde o estrato 1 representava o nível de menor vulnerabilidade e o estrato 3 o de maior vulnerabilidade. Foram calculadas razões de taxas e índice de concentração, com nível de significância de 5%. Foram encontrados riscos mais elevados de câncer de mama (0,46; IC95%: 0,41; 0,51), colorretal (0,56; IC95%: 0,47; 0,68) e tireoide (0,32; IC95%: 0,26; 0,40) em mulheres do estrato 1 e de colo uterino em mulheres do estrato 3 (2,32; IC95%: 1,63; 3,29). Mulheres do estrato 1 tiveram taxas mais elevadas de câncer de mama (0,69; IC95%: 0,53; 0,88) e colorretal (0,69; IC95%: 0,59; 0,80), e mulheres do estrato 3 tiveram taxas mais elevadas de câncer do colo uterino (2,35; IC95%: 1,57; 3,52) e estômago (1,43; IC95%: 1,06; 1,91). Para todos os tipos de câncer, a sobrevida era mais baixa em mulheres do estrato de maior vulnerabilidade social. As desigualdades observadas mostraram diferenças de acordo com a localização do tumor e o indicador utilizado. Além disso, há uma tendência de inverter as desigualdades entre incidência, mortalidade e sobrevida, onde a sobrevida sempre é desfavorável para o estrato de maior vulnerabilidade, indicando a existência de desigualdades em acesso ao diagnóstico precoce e tratamento precoce.

El objetivo fue analizar las inequidades en la incidencia, mortalidad y supervivencia de los principales tipos de cáncer en mujeres, según el Índice de Vulnerabilidad Social (IVS). El estudio se llevó a cabo en Campinas, estado de São Paulo, Brasil, durante el período 2010-2014, y se usaron datos del Registro de Cáncer de Base Poblacional (RCBP) y el Sistema de Información de Mortalidad (SIM). Las tasas de incidencia y mortalidad estandarizadas por edad, así como las estimaciones de supervivencia durante cinco años, se calcularon según los estratos de vulnerabilidad social (SVS). Se delimitaron tres SVS, basados en el IVS de São Paulo, con SVS1 siendo el nivel más bajo de vulnerabilidad y SVS3 siendo el nivel más alto de vulnerabilidad. Se calcularon los cocientes de tasas y el índice de concentración. El nivel de significancia fue 5%. Se encontró un riesgo más alto de cáncer de la mama (0,46; IC95%: 0,41; 0,51), colorrectal (0,56; IC95%: 0,47; 0,68), y tiroides (0,32; IC95%: 0,26; 0,40) en mujeres de SVS1, y cáncer cervical en mujeres de SVS3 (2,32; IC95%: 1,63; 3,29). Respecto a la mortalidad, las mujeres de SVS1 tuvieron tasas más altas en cáncer de la mama (0,69; IC95%: 0,53; 0,88) y colorrectal (0,69; IC95%: 0,59; 0,80) y las mujeres de SVS3 tuvieron tasas más altas en cáncer cervical (2,35; IC95%: 1,57; 3,52) y estómago (1,43; IC95%: 1,06; 1,91). Para todos los tipos de cáncer, las tasas de supervivencia fueron más bajas en mujeres del estrato social con más alta vulnerabilidad social. Las inequidades sociales observadas difirieron según la localización del cáncer y el indicador analizado, y no hubo una tendencia para revertir las inequidades entre incidencia, mortalidad y supervivencia, las últimas siempre fueron desfavorables para el segmento de más alta vulnerabilidad, indicando la existencia de desigualdad en el acceso a un diagnóstico temprano y un tratamiento oportuno.

La iniciativa Todas las Mujeres Todos los Niños brinda apoyo a los países de América Latina y el Caribe para reducir las desigualdades sociales en la salud / The Every Woman Every Child initiative: supporting countries in Latin America and the Caribbean to reduce social inequalities in health / A iniciativa "Todas as mulheres, todas as crianças" oferece apoio aos países da América Latina e Caribe para reduzir as desigualdades sociais de saúde

resumen está disponible en el texto completo

ABSTRACT Every Woman Every Child Latin America and the Caribbean (EWEC-LAC) was established in 2017 as a regional inter-agency mechanism. EWEC-LAC coordinates the regional implementation of the Global Strategy for Women's, Children's and Adolescents' Health in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC), including adaptation to region specific needs, to end preventable deaths, ensure health and well-being and expand enabling environments for the health and well-being of women, children and adolescents. To advance the equitable achievement of these objectives, EWEC-LAC's three working groups collectively support LAC countries in measuring and monitoring social inequalities in health, advocating for their reduction, and designing and implementing equity-oriented strategies, policies and interventions. This support for data-driven advocacy, capacity building, and policy and program solutions toward closing current gaps ensures that no one is left behind. Members of EWEC-LAC include PAHO, UNAIDS, UNFPA, UNICEF, UN WOMEN, the World Bank, the Inter-American Development Bank, USAID, LAC Regional Neonatal Alliance, and the LAC Regional Task Force for the Reduction of Maternal Mortality. To date, EWEC-LAC has developed and collected innovative tools and resources and begun to engage with countries to utilize them to reduce equity gaps. These resources include a framework for the measurement of social inequalities in health, data use and advocacy tools including a data dashboard to visualize trends in social inequalities in health in LAC countries, a methodology for setting targets for the reduction of inequalities, and a compendium of tools, instruments and methods to identify and address social inequalities in health. EWEC-LAC has also engaged regionally to emphasize the importance of recognizing these inequalities at social and political levels, and advocated for the reduction of these gaps. Attention to closing health equity gaps is ever more critical in the face of the COVID-19 pandemic which has exploited existing vulnerabilities. More equitable health systems will be better prepared to confront future health shocks.

RESUMO A iniciativa "Todas as mulheres, todas as crianças da América Latina e Caribe" (EWEC-LAC, na sigla em inglês) foi criada em 2017 como um mecanismo interinstitucional regional. Coordena a implementação regional da Estratégia Mundial para a Saúde da Mulher, da Criança e do Adolescente 2016-2030 na América Latina e Caribe (ALC), incluindo sua adaptação a necessidades específicas da região, para acabar com as mortes evitáveis, garantir a saúde e o bem-estar e expandir ambientes propícios para a saúde e o bem-estar de mulheres, crianças e adolescentes. Para promover o alcance equitativo desses objetivos, os três grupos de trabalho da EWEC-LAC apoiam coletivamente os países da ALC com a medição e o monitoramento das desigualdades sociais de saúde, a promoção de sua redução, e o delineamento e a implementação de estratégias, políticas e intervenções voltadas para a equidade. Esse apoio para fechar as lacunas atuais assegura que ninguém seja deixado para trás. Os membros da iniciativa EWEC-LAC incluem UNFPA, OPAS, ONU Mulheres, UNAIDS, UNICEF, Banco Mundial, Banco Interamericano de Desenvolvimento, USAID, Aliança Neonatal Regional para ALC e Grupo de Trabalho Regional para a Redução da Mortalidade Materna. Até o momento, a EWEC-LAC desenvolveu e compilou ferramentas e recursos inovadores e começou a colaborar com os países para utilizá-los a fim de reduzir as lacunas de equidade. Isso inclui uma estrutura de medição das desigualdades sociais de saúde, ferramentas de promoção de dados (como um painel de dados para visualizar tendências nas desigualdades sociais de saúde), uma metodologia para estabelecer metas para reduzir as desigualdades e um compêndio de ferramentas e métodos para identificar e abordar as desigualdades sociais de saúde. A EWEC-LAC trabalhou na região para enfatizar a importância de reconhecer essas desigualdades nos níveis social e político, e defendeu sua redução. A atenção para o fechamento das lacunas de equidade na saúde é cada vez mais crítica frente à pandemia de COVID-19, que exacerbou as vulnerabilidades existentes. Sistemas de saúde mais equitativos estarão mais bem preparados para lidar com futuras crises de saúde.

Complex social gradient in life expectancy in Costa Rica: an ecological study with 24-Million person-years follow-up / Complejo gradiente socioeconómico en esperanza de vida en Costa Rica: un estudio ecológico con seguimiento de 24 millones de personas-año

ABSTRACT: The knowledge of Costa Rica's situation regarding the social gradient in mortality is still incomplete. National Electoral Rolls, which included all adult Costa Rican citizens were used. The event was death between 2010 and 2018. The exhaustive final sample included 2,747,616 people for 23,985,602 person-years of follow-up. An ecological study at the electoral district level was performed. A negative social gradient was observed in men and in women, in particular in urban area. A protective effect of rural areas compared to urban areas was revealed in men, but not in women. As a result, in men, the poorest districts of mixed/rural areas had similar life expectancy than the richest districts in urban areas. These results partially contradicted the international literature on socioeconomic inequalities. It demonstrates the importance of studying contexts other than high-income countries to better understand the social inequalities in health worldwide.

RESUMEN: El conocimiento sobre la distribución del gradiente social de la mortalidad en Costa Rica aún no ha sido totalmente comprendido y nuevos estudios pueden confirmar o refutar lo que anteriormente se ha observado. Se utilizaron las listas electorales nacionales, que incluían a todos los ciudadanos costarricenses adultos. El evento fue la muerte entre 2010 y 2018. Siendo la muestra exhaustiva final de 2.747.616 personas para 23.985.602 personas-año de seguimiento. Se realizó un estudio ecológico a nivel de distrito electoral, para caracterizar la situación socioeconómica de cada uno. Se observó un gradiente social negativo en hombres y mujeres, en particular en el área urbana. Se observó un efecto protector de las áreas rurales en comparación con las áreas urbanas en los hombres, pero no en las mujeres. Como resultado, en los hombres, los distritos más pobres de las áreas mixtas/rurales tenían una esperanza de vida similar a la de los distritos más ricos de las áreas urbanas. Estos resultados contradicen parcialmente la literatura internacional sobre las inequidades socioeconómicas en mortalidad. Demuestra la importancia de estudiar contextos distintos a los de los países de ingresos altos para comprender mejor las desigualdades sociales en salud en todo el mundo.

Social inequities in cardiovascular risk factors in women and men by autonomous regions in Spain / Desigualdades sociales en factores de riesgo cardiovascular en hombres y mujeres por comunidad autónoma en España

Objective: To describe social inequities in cardiovascular risk factors in women and men by autonomous regions in Spain. Method: We used data from 20,406 individuals aged 18 or older from the 2017 Spanish National Health Survey. We measured socioeconomic position using occupational social class and used data on selfreported cardiovascular risk factors: high cholesterol, diabetes, hypertension, obesity, and smoking. We estimated the relative risk of inequality using Poisson regression models. Analyses were stratified by men and women and by region (autonomous communities). Results: Overall, the relative risk of inequality was 1.02, 1.13, 1.06, 1.17 and 1.09 for high cholesterol, diabetes, hypertension, obesity, and current smoking, respectively. Ocuupational social class inequities in diabetes, hypertension, and obesity was stronger for women. Results showed a large regional heterogeneity in these inequities; some regions (e.g. Asturias and Balearic Islands) presented wider social inequities in cardiovascular risk factors than others (e.g. Galicia, Navarra or Murcia). Conclusion: In Spain, we found marked social inequities in the prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors, with wide regional and women/men heterogeneity in these inequities. Education, social, economic and health policies at the regional level could reduce health inequities in cardiovascular risk factors and, thus, prevent cardiovascular disease. (AU)

Objetivo: Describir las desigualdades sociales en factores de riesgo cardiovascular en hombres y mujeres por comunidad autónoma en España. Método: Los sujetos de estudio fueron 20.406 personas de 18 años o más que participaron en la Encuesta Nacional de Salud de 2017. Como medida de posición socioeconómica se utilizó la clase social ocupacional. Se tomaron medidas autorreportadas de factores de riesgo cardiovascular: hipercolesterolemia, diabetes, hipertensión, obesidad y tabaquismo. Se estimó el índice relativo de desigualdad usando modelos de regresión de Poisson. Los análisis fueron estratificados por sexo y por comunidad autónoma. Resultados: El índice relativo de desigualdad fue de 1,02, 1,13, 1,06, 1,17 y 1,09 para hipercolesterolemia, diabetes, hipertensión, obesidad y tabaquismo, respectivamente. Las desigualdades por clase social ocupacional en diabetes, hipertensión y obesidad fueron más altas en las mujeres. Se observó una alta heterogeneidad en las desigualdades; algunas comunidades autónomas (p. ej., Asturias e Islas Baleares) presentan más desigualdades en factores de riesgo cardiovascular que otras (p. ej., Galicia, Navarra y Murcia). Conclusiones: En España encontramos marcadas desigualdades sociales en la prevalencia de factores de riesgo cardiovascular, con gran heterogeneidad por mujeres, hombres y comunidad autónoma. Las políticas educativas, sociales, económicas y de salud en las comunidades autónomas podrían reducir las desigualdades sociales en factores de riesgo cardiovascular y, por tanto, prevenir enfermedades cardiovasculares. (AU)

Asociación entre variables indicadoras del nivel socioeconómico del lugar de residencia en Sevilla y la incidencia y frecuentación hospitalaria pediátrica por tosferina / Association between indicators of neighbourhood socioeconomic status in Seville and the incidence of pertussis and related hospital admissions in children

Introducción: el objetivo de este estudio es analizar la asociación entre nivel socioeconómico del lugar de residencia y la incidencia y frecuentación hospitalaria infantil por tosferina.Material y método: estudio observacional, transversal, con dos unidades de observación de menores de 15 años residentes en Sevilla: 1) hospitalizaciones en los dos hospitales públicos de la ciudad por cualquier motivo (2013-2015): n = 7315; y 2) casos declarados confirmados de tosferina (2013-2017): n = 102. Las variables independientes fueron edad, sexo y residencia en zonas con necesidad de transformación social (ZNTS), en riesgo de pobreza (ZRP) y con educación insuficiente (EIZR). Las variables dependientes fueron hospitalizaciones y casos declarados confirmados de tosferina. Se realizaron análisis univariantes, bivariantes y multivariantes en la unidad Hospitalizaciones, mediante test χ2 y modelos de regresión logística, con el programa R. Se calcularon tasa y razón de incidencia por subdistritos en la unidad casos declarados. Resultados: el 1,12% de las hospitalizaciones fue por tosferina (n = 82). Entre el 2,0 y el 2,4% de las hospitalizaciones por tosferina procedieron de los subdistritos más desfavorecidos, en comparación con el 0,8 y 0,9% del resto de la ciudad (p <0,001). Las odds ratios, ajustadas por edad y sexo, y sus intervalos de confianza del 95%, fueron: ZNTS = 2,76 (1,74-4,32), ZRP = 2,48 (1,47-4,04) y EIZR = 2,17 (1,38-3,39). La razón de incidencia también fue superior en las zonas más desfavorecidas (2,50, 1,99 y 2,01, respectivamente). Conclusiones: el menor nivel socioeconómico de las áreas residenciales de Sevilla se asocia a la mayor frecuentación hospitalaria e incidencia de tosferina infantil (AU)

Introduction: the aim of our study was to analyse the association between the SES of the neighbourhood of residence and the incidence of pertussis and frequency of hospital visits associated with pertussis in the paediatric population.Material and methods: we conducted a cross-sectional observational study, with 2 sets of observations in children under 15 years living in Seville: 1) admissions for any reason to the 2 public hospitals of Seville (2013-2015; n = 7315) and 2) reported cases of pertussis (2013-2017; n = 102). The independent variables were age, sex and residence in areas in need of social transformation (ANSTs), areas at risk of poverty (ARPs) and areas with low educational attainment (ALEAs). In the analysis of the reported cases data set, we calculated the incidence and incidence ratio for each subdistrict.Results: of the total hospital admissions, 1.12% (n = 82) were due to pertussis. Between 2.0 and 2.4% of admissions in children that resided in disadvantaged subdistricts were due to pertussis, compared to 0.8 to 0.9% in children living in the rest of the city (p <0.001). The sex- and age-adjusted odds ratios (with their corresponding 95% confidence intervals) were: ANST 2.76 (1.74-4.32) for ANSTs, 2.48 (1.47-4.04) for ARPs and 2.17 (1.38-3.39) for ALEAs. The incidence ratios were also higher in these disadvantaged areas (2.50, 1.99 and 2.01, respectively).Conclusions: low neighbourhood socioeconomic status in Seville was associated with a higher incidence of pertussis and a higher frequency of related hospital admissions in the paediatric population. (AU)

Ausência de raça e gênero no enfrentamento da pandemia no Brasil / Absence of race and gender in the fight against the pandemic in Brazil / Falta de raza y género en el enfrentamiento a la pandemia en Brasil

Esta nota discute a ausência dos quesitos cor/raça e gênero nos boletins epidemiológicos da Covid-19 e como essa omissão está articulada ao modo como se operacionaliza o racismo no Brasil. Coloca-se em evidência a apropriação da identidade racial e de gênero por alguns estados brasileiros que ganharam visibilidade midiática, como sendo solidários, ao iniciarem a campanha de vacinação com mulheres negras, grupo social mais vulnerável. É o jogo da dissimulação, em que se evidencia a raça/gênero na aparência, embora essas variáveis não sejam consideradas no enfrentamento da pandemia.

This note discusses the non-inclusion of information about color/race and gender in Covid-19 epidemiological reports and how this omission is related to the way that the racism is operated in Brazil. It highlights the racial and gender identity appropriation by some Brazilian states, which have gained media visibility as sympathetic governments to Black women, by starting the vaccination campaign with them, an extremely vulnerable social group. It is like a confidence trick, in which race and gender are in the spotlight, although these features are not considered in the fight against the pandemic.

Esta nota discute la ausencia de las informaciones sobre cor/raza y género en los boletines epidemiológicos de la Covid-19 y como esa omisión se encuentra articulada al modo en que se opera el racismo en Brasil. Destaca la apropiación de la identidad racial y de género por parte de algunos estados brasileños que han ganado visibilidad mediática, vistos como solidarios, puesto que han iniciado la campaña de vacunación con algunas mujeres negras, el grupo social más vulnerable. Es el juego del disimulo, por lo cual es evidenciada la raza/género en la apariencia, sin embargo esas variables no sean tenidas en cuenta en el enfrentamiento a la pandemia.

Social inequities in cardiovascular risk factors in women and men by autonomous regions in Spain.

OBJECTIVE: To describe social inequities in cardiovascular risk factors in women and men by autonomous regions in Spain. METHOD: We used data from 20,406 individuals aged 18 or older from the 2017 Spanish National Health Survey. We measured socioeconomic position using occupational social class and used data on self-reported cardiovascular risk factors: high cholesterol, diabetes, hypertension, obesity, and smoking. We estimated the relative risk of inequality using Poisson regression models. Analyses were stratified by men and women and by region (autonomous communities). RESULTS: Overall, the relative risk of inequality was 1.02, 1.13, 1.06, 1.17 and 1.09 for high cholesterol, diabetes, hypertension, obesity, and current smoking, respectively. Ocuupational social class inequities in diabetes, hypertension, and obesity was stronger for women. Results showed a large regional heterogeneity in these inequities; some regions (e.g. Asturias and Balearic Islands) presented wider social inequities in cardiovascular risk factors than others (e.g. Galicia, Navarra or Murcia). CONCLUSION: In Spain, we found marked social inequities in the prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors, with wide regional and women/men heterogeneity in these inequities. Education, social, economic and health policies at the regional level could reduce health inequities in cardiovascular risk factors and, thus, prevent cardiovascular disease.

[How to measure the migration status of the child and young population? Studies on health and inequalities in health in Europe]. / ¿Cómo medir el estatus migratorio de la población infantil y juvenil? Estudios sobre salud y desigualdades en salud en Europa.

OBJECTIVE: To analyse how the migration status of the child and young population is measured in the scientific literature on health and social inequalities in health in Europe. METHOD: A systematic search of the literature published in Spanish, English and French between 2007 and 2017 in PubMed and Social Sciences Citation Index was carried out. The included studies analysed health and social inequalities in health of a population under 18 years old according to its migration origin in Europe. The variables used to measure the migration status were described. RESULTS: 50 articles were included. Twenty studies analysed perinatal health, eleven mental health, nine dental health, and ten studies other variables. The main variables to define migration status were the country of birth (32 studies), either of the child, the mother, or one of the parents, and sometimes in a complementary way. Less frequent was the use of nationality (15 studies), of the child, or of the parents, especially the mother. Migration status is referred to in very different ways, not always comparable and sometimes the variable used is not clearly explained. CONCLUSIONS: There is a great diversity of ways to measure migration status in the child and young population. A better definition and consensus is needed to improve the temporal and geographical comparability of knowledge in this area, which will help to design public policies aimed at reducing social inequalities in health from childhood.

Energy poverty, its intensity and health in vulnerable populations in a Southern European city.

OBJECTIVE: To describe and compare the health status between vulnerable population participating in a program to tackle energy poverty (Energía, la justa) and the non-energy poor Barcelona (Spain) population and to analyse among participants the effect of energy poverty intensity on health. METHOD: Cross-sectional study based on data from program participants obtained before the intervention. Participants (1799 women and 671 men) were compared to non-energy poor population of Barcelona (1393 women and 1215 men) sampled from the Barcelona Public Health Survey (2016). Standardized prevalence and prevalence ratios of self-perceived poor health, asthma, chronic bronchitis, and depression and/or anxiety were estimated, and among participants the association between health status and energy poverty intensity was estimated with multivariate models. RESULTS: The probability of poor self-perceived physical and mental health ranged from 2.2 to 5.3 times greater in the program participants than non-energy poor Barcelona population. Among program participants, those most affected were found to be the most likely to report poor health outcomes, regardless of other sociodemographic factors. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of poor physical and mental health was considerably higher among women and men participating in the programme compared to the non-energy poor population and was even worse among those who were more severely affected. Public policies that tackle energy poverty and its consequences are urgently needed in Spain.

Desigualdad social y género / Social inequality and gender

Introducción: Existe interés político y científico de profundizar en los fundamentos teóricos relacionados con desigualdades sociales y de género sobre todo si constituyen iniquidades que conducen a problemas de salud. Objetivo: Sistematizar el conocimiento acerca de las desigualdades sociales y de género y su implicación en la salud de la población. Métodos: Se realizó un estudio de revisión documental de la literatura científica publicada en SciELO y Medline mediante el empleo de análisis de contenido de tipo formal, que permitió arribar a las ideas expresadas. Conclusiones: En el presente estudio se han podido sistematizar los fundamentos teóricos de desigualdad e inequidad y los modelos teóricos que lo sustentan. El proceso salud-enfermedad-atención se manifiesta de forma diferente en función de la situación social y de género de las comunidades humanas(AU)

Introduction: There is a political and scientific interest in deepening the theoretical foundations related to social and gender inequalities, especially if they constitute iniquities that lead to health problems. Objective: To systematize knowledge about social and gender inequalities and their involvement in the population´s health. Methods: A documentary review study of scientific literature published in SciELO and Medline was conducted through the use of formal content analysis, which allowed to get to the ideas expressed. Conclusions: This study has been able to systematize the theoretical foundations of inequality and inequity and the theoretical models that underpin it. The health-disease-care process manifests itself differently depending on the social and gender situation of human communities(AU)

Bases teórico-conceptuales para el análisis de inequidades sociales en salud: una discusión / Theoretical Implications for the Analysis of Social Health Inequalities: A Discussion

RESUMEN Las Inequidades Sociales en Salud (ISS) continúan representando un gran reto para la salud pública en los diferentes países del mundo. Por su parte, el estudio, análisis y generación de conocimiento en esta materia ha sido reconocida como prioritaria para la Organización Mundial de la Salud desde 1991. La investigación de las ISS debe basarse en fundamentos teóricos y conceptuales sólidos, pues son estos las que guiarán las decisiones metodológicas en términos de diseño de investigaciones, formulación de intervenciones y políticas públicas en salud. En Latinoamérica, los estudios realizados se han basado primordialmente en experiencias que se han llevado a cabo en países industrializados. Esto ha fomentado que el análisis de las ISS reproduzca posturas teóricas y metodologías, sin necesariamente presentar una perspectiva crítica de los posibles estratificadores sociales que aproximan de la mejor forma los determinantes sociales de la salud en los contextos particulares. Por esta razón, se expone que las aproximaciones teórico-metodológicas deben ajustarse a los contextos específicos de los países; que la estratificación social de la salud debe ser evaluada de forma prioritaria; que los determinantes de la salud individuales y estructurales deben ser considerados dentro de las mediciones; y que la justificación teórica de las decisiones metodológicas realizadas en los estudios y las medidas seleccionadas deben ser explícitas y responder a hipótesis concretas. Esto con el fin de proveer un análisis crítico y herramientas útiles tanto para la investigación como para la toma de decisiones en salud. Este estudio inicia con una síntesis de los principales antecedentes históricos que han permitido la evolución del concepto de ISS. Seguidamente, se presentan los principales conceptos subyacentes relativos a la definición de ISS (determinantes sociales, equidad, justicia, estratificación y gradiente social en salud) y cómo estos deben guiar las decisiones prácticas y metodológicas. Finalmente, se concluye con algunas recomendaciones para la generación de esta evidencia científica para Latinoamérica.

ABSTRACT Social health inequalities (or inequities) continue to represent a great challenge for public health research worldwide. Since 1991, the World Health Organization established that the study and analysis of health inequalities represented a priority for all countries. To better guide methodological and practical implications of health inequalities, research on this topic should present a solid theoretical model, able to impact future public health policies. Previous studies of health inequalities in Latin America are often inspired from abroad experiences, encouraging the reproduction of mainly European theoretical positions and methodologies. However, especially when it comes to this topic, it is known the important role of the social context and culture, playing an important role in promoting differences in health outcomes. From this perspective, to operationalize the different social determinants in health, a critical perspective and thoughtful analysis of the context is mandatory. In order to provide a critical analysis and useful tools for both research and health decision making, we recommend that the theoretical and methodological approaches used in social health inequalities research must be well adapted to the specific contexts; that health social stratification must be assessed as a priority; that individual and the wider health determinants must be well characterized; and that the theoretical justification of the methodological decisions made in the studies and the selected measures must be explicit and should answer specific hypotheses. This research provides a brief historical background, to share the basis for the conceptual evolution of social health inequalities; the main underlying concepts related to the definition of health inequalities (social determinants, equity, justice, stratification and social gradient in health); and some recommendations for the future perspectives of health inequalities research in Latin America.

[Social inequalities in health among the elderly population: review of indicators used in Spain]. / Desigualdades sociales en salud en población mayor: revisión de los indicadores empleados en España.

OBJECTIVE: To identify the indicators of social position used to evaluate inequalities in health among the population aged 65 and over in Spain. METHOD: A systematic search of the literature published in English and Spanish since 2000 in health and social databases was carried out. Primary and secondary studies analyzing these inequalities in Spain were included. The indicators used were identified, as well as the advantages and limitations pointed out by the authors. The main findings were synthesized in a review of the literature. RESULTS: We included 87 studies, described in 89 articles. The socioeconomic indicators employed were both individual and ecological. Among the former, educational level was the most analyzed socioeconomic variable (n=73). Other individual variables used were occupation (n=17), objective economic level (n=16), subjective economic level (n=4), housing and household material wealth (n=6), relationship with work activity (n=5), and mixed measures (n=5). Among the ecological indicators, simple (n=3) and complex indices (n=7) were identified. The latter had been constructed based on several indicators, such as educational level and unemployment. Inequalities in multiple health indicators were analyzed, self-perceived health being the only indicator assessed according to all the socioeconomic indicators described. CONCLUSIONS: A wide variety of indicators is identified for the evaluation of social inequalities in health among the elderly population. There have not been sufficiently assessed from a gender perspective; this is a line of interest for future research.